Five Significant Issues Associated with Muslim Politics

Question : Prepare a portfolio of work, covering five significant issues associated with Muslim Politics. Each topic should be in the form of a briefing document (840 words per topic). Each element of the portfolio will be marked individually.Example-Discuss the relevance (if any) of the term 'Islamic fundamentalism'. Answer : Topic 1: Discuss the relevance of the term Islamic fundamentalism Fundamentalism is a suitable theme of the interdisciplinary public policy study as it helps in inspiring the development of institutions and structures in order to comprehend different aspects of human existence. In simple terms Islamic fundamentalism can be referred to the depiction used in association with the Islamic ideology (Geldbach, 2002). Various scholars have defined Islamic fundamentalism in different manner, reflecting on their own understanding. Academician John Espito has significantly focused on the belief of Islamic fundamentalism that is associated with the reopening of the gates of itijihad which is solely reliant on the independent reasoning for making legal decision according to the Sunni law. The movement of Islamic fundamentalists was originated in late 19th century (Hirschmann, 2001). Various research and studies have been undertaken for as the Islamic fundamentalism has lately emerged in the political context. According to the Muslim fundamentalists, Islam is c onsidered to be in a phase of resurgence as it starts in the vigor of the conscience. Therefore, it becomes apparent in life as well as doctrine. The basis of Islam fundamentalism revolves around the belief that the Islam is going through a continuous change procedure (Sonn, 2005). It is stated that the progress of the Islam damns the Muslims to be committed to a constant revolution in the dynamic environment. Hence, within the Islam, resurgence occurs due to its dynamic nature, comprehensiveness and ability to respond to the changing basic needs of mankind (Johnston, 2008). There are three major paradigms off the Islamic fundamentalism and the relevance of the concept can be easily understood by discussing the three paradigms. The first paradigm of Islamic fundamentalism is Islamic exceptionalism (Geldbach, 2002). The researchers adhering to this paradigm believe that the theories of Western social science in the study of Islamic fundamentalism as the features are unique in case of the Islamic society (Kazemzadeh, 1998). It has been indentified that the Islamic orientation and world is completely distinct from the rest of globe (S. Moussalli, 2000). This paradigm implies that Islam is consisted of a set of lucidly defined and constant principles. This principle idea of Islam is significantly associated with the affirmation that Islam is not merely a religious philosophy but a complete way of life (Tamadonfar and Moussalli, 2000). Additionally, the Islamic principles are considered to be independent variables which are essential in order to determine the behaviors (Kumaraswamy, 2003). According to Myron Weiner, What is striking about the Islamic resurgence is its rejection of much of what is generally regarded as modern in the twentieth century: secularism, democracy, and even nationalism. In this respect Islam has come to play quite a different role from that of the religions of modernization-Christianity, Judaism, Confucianism, Shintoism, even Buddhism and Hinduism. Each of these religions, in its own way, has been interpreted or reinterpreted so as to induce people to behave in ways conducive to modernization, or to function alongside of, without impeding, modern behavior, yet to provide personal comfort, a sense of continuity with one's past, and a group identity. According to John Esposito, fundamentalism cannot be used in this context as the Islamic movements in the last 2 decades are considered to be normal and cyclical phenomenon which is also evident in Islamic history (Sonn, 2007). These movements are often referred as the political Islam or Islamist and viewed in a positive way. On the other hand, some scholars from west have expressed a negative view regarding the Islamic movements. These scholars had argued that the origin of authoritarianism and domination of rebel in the Muslim nation faith of Islam and the Islamic fundamentalism is considered to be a positive political form of the Islamic belief (Zuhur, 2001). While some scholars established distinction between the Islamic fundamentalism as a political ideology and Islam as faith, another group of scholar denied accepting the division between these two. Another group adhering to the first paradigm has argued that the Islamic political system or government is better than democracy ( Weismann, 2011). Additionally, the Islamic fundamentalists have argued that the divine law is far better than the human designed law adopted in Western continents. Additionally, the Islamic fundamentalists tagged some activities such as pre-marital sex, drinking alcohols, extra-marital sex, watching VH1, gambling etc as immoral and it affects the well being of the society (Tamadonfar and Moussalli, 2000). The second paradigm revolves around the concept of comparative fundamentalism. Scholars adhering to the second paradigm consider the rise of the Islamic movements in the last twenty years as a part of the rise in the religious rights across the world (Yousif, 2012). Hence, it can be stated that Islamic fundamentalism is not unique and it is a part of the large phenomenon. These scholars have argued that the movements associated with religious rights have significantly threatened the civil liberty, democracy, secularism, scientific progress and women right (Torab, 2001). The third paradigm focuses on the social science concepts for analyzing Islamic fundamentalism. According to the scholars adhering to this paradigm, Islamic fundamentalism has slight relevance to the traditional practices of Muslim religion (Kumaraswamy, 2003). Hence, it can be found that different perspectives have been shared regarding Islamic fundamentalism and profound relevance has been observed in most of the st udies and researchers. Topic 2: The concept of reform and its influence on Muslim Politics Transformations in the Islamic thoughts and ideas are sets of reactions to assorted progress which are confronting the humanity (Ehteshami, 2004). The difference in the circumstances has prompted to various reactions. It is evident that there is no single model, rather an arrangement of thoughts and hypotheses which may interface and connect with each other and emphasizes on the continuity which might lead to the prophet (Khalid, 1998). Research scholars have focused on classifying the reformers as Qur'anic, Islamic, or Muslim. The reformers have the ability to express their ideas as well as activities as all or none of these things. The reformers may certainly or specifically demonstrates themselves as having sincerity of intention (niyyat) for their group, whether philanthropy enters the equation. The thoughts and impacts upon the reformers, and the coherence of thought between different generation as well as distinctive components of the Islamic world, has educated and molded chan ge. There is mutuality of principal interests and issues and the pervasive impact of the wave of reform can be found in numerous Muslim groups and social communities all through the history (Juergensmeyer, 2006). It has played a major role in shaping the Islamic political discourse. It is important to perceive the level of differences inside the paradigm of reform, though underpinned by common factors of Qur'an and Hadith (Akbarzadeh, 2012). It will be effective to consider the specific developments and the reformers in the Middle East, South Asia, and South East Asian Islamic history. Following the roots and developmental impacts on backers of tajdid gives a system, with which to comprehend impacts on contemporary endeavors to decipher Islam as per requests of the current age. This has had a particular effect on the different meanings of 'Muslim Politics. It is important to describe the term reform. According to the English dictionary, reform means improvement through identification as well eradication of the flaws. Reform is associated with the particular value judgment which seems to be not appropriate to an individual (Choueiri, 2010). Reform is synonym of tajdid which can be defined as: "renewal...creation of something new, origination; new presentation,... modernization; renovation, restoration... rejuvination, regeneration." Muslim groups have experienced trend that of necessity altered view of Islam. Changes have occurred on a linear as well as historical basis from everyday and n different years: they are not typically executed or bolstered by a solitary change association; they are not and have never been widespread or common (Khalid, 1998). Qur'an, God and the Prophet Muhammad, have been the principal steady commanding voices in Islam. Indeed certain Hadith may be controversial, being subject to the power of their isnad or chain of transmission, in spite of the fact that they hold a part in clarifying the Qur'an (Akbarzadeh, 2012). The supporters of changes in understanding of Islam were influenced by various factors such as political, social, monetary, philosophical, and/or religious in character (Lapidus, 1988). Often, reform can be looked for in light of a shift in verifiable circumstances such as attack, extension, provinciality and migration have all animated reappraisals at different times to I slamic lifestyles. These difficulties may be seen as divinely inspired, maybe disciplines, in which plan of action has been made to Qur'anic points of reference as a means to comprehend and react to the risks or changes (Milton-Edwards, 2000). The jolt may consolidate a need to come back to the custom of the first Muslim group, to perceive how Muhammad, and the Companions, managed analogous circumstances, through examination of the Qur'an, Hadith, as well as biographical resources. Similar inspiration for change and reappraisal has been found through ideological movements. The development of Islam saw a combination of pre-islamic traditions inside new Islamic systems, raising new inquiries for which a new viewpoint and another point of reference were looked for (Blackburn, 2003). Disappointment with business as usual, where a decay or stagnation in the public arena has been faulted upon a "disappointment" to decipher Islam effectively or the requirement for a more finish or refined comprehension, has prompted endeavors at change in political and religious settings (Nasr, 1987). There may be a longing for following the straight way', or even move it in the midst of the maze of unconventional choices produced through history (Assyaukanie et al., 2008). It is not so much genuine that the promoters of progress or reform concur with each other. The reforms have been presented in different structures and forms such as in writing, painting, verbally or through broadcasting using various media, and may be disregarded by numerous, considered as a threat by the power, or forced upon an unwilling populace (Akiner and Khalid, 2001). There might be a component of agreement ('ijma), and the thinking behind changes may camouflage ulterior political motivation which could compare with earnestly held Islamic convictions (Armajani, 2012). South Asia has contributed in providing a resource of ideologies as well as values connected with the re-appraisal of Islam which clearly indicates the diversity within Islam. It has been observed that Salafiyya movement had a foundation in Syria and Egypt. The diversity in Islam has been reflected in various circumstances and in such environment ijtihad was advocated as one of the best possible solutions (Angrist, 2010). Topic 3: Role of Religious Leaders in Muslim Politics A significant cross-cultural difference is observed in case of the role of the religious leaders in the society as well as politics (Davenport, 2007). The primary difference between the western culture and Islam countries are attitude of towards the role of religious leads. It has been observed that in Muslim politics the religious leaders have a greater scope for exercising their power by virtue of their spiritual authority in the politics of nation (Omoniyi and Fishman, 2006). The religious leaders in Islam have been a part of mosque, clerisy at the same time government. They have performed a major role in the society and community through exercising significant political power (Ayoob, 2008). Muslim community significantly emphasizes on the religion and considers it be an inseparable part of the identity of a human being which will notably influence every aspect of his life. Islamic concepts and philosophies are not only restricted to a religion, it completely influences and controls the way of thinking and behaving (The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, 2013). All aspect of human existence is ruled by the instructions and philosophy of Islam. Consequently, it has been observed over the years that there is no division between religion and politics in Islam. Muslim leaders are responsible for controlling the notion and behavior of individuals in social as well as political life(Haynes, 2009). The strong bond between religion and politics was established at the early era of the faith. Muslim prophet Muhammad was also considered as the religious leaders as well as political guide. In 622, Muhammad migrated from Mecca to Medina or serving as a judge for the local people (Davenport, 2007). At that time, prophet had encouraged the local populace for acknowledging him both as a mediator and prophet. He played a significant role in settling the disputes and hence, was tagged as a mediator. He was prophet as he was chosen by God to teach the mankind. The Islam community was considered Prophet Muhammad as the model of faithfulness(Haynes, 2009). Additionally, it was believed that Muhammad was the supreme authority in the matters regarding to faith (Afkhami, 1995). Moreover, he was considered as a statesman and the major role of the religious leader in politics have contributed in shaping the early stages of Muslim Ummah (Ernst, 2003). This conception was shaped by the early successors of Islam as they had perceived that the mantle of authority over the Islamic community. The Caliphs who had ruled during the period 632 to 661 had functioned as a religious as well as political leader. They had enjoyed a special status. Later, the Islamic empire started to grow and the demand as well as challenge regarding the governance of a community which was spread over a large geographic region leaded to changes in the leadership style (Hefner, 2011). Eventually, a need for separating the religious and the political authority was identified. Therefore, several positions and office were developed on the basis of religion, such as lawyers, theologian, judge etc. In the contemporary Muslim world, this practice has been continuing where the political and religious authority are not same. However, it must be considered that the division between these two aspects has not separated these two spheres completely. The beliefs and theories of Islam state the religion will influence the political affairs. Hence, the religious authorities or leaders play a significant role in ensuring that the values and principles of Islam are embedded in the core of the political system. In various Muslim countries, Islamic law or Shariah is followed so that individual comes under the authority of God and devotes themselves to the divine will (Hefner, 2011; Kayaoglu, 2012). Hence, it is evident that the Muslim religious leaders play a major role in the political system of a nation. Apart from these, some countries have adopted the Islamic laws in some specific aspects such as inheritance, marriage or divorce. Hence, these nations require religious representatives who will ensure that the activities do not go against the spirit of Islam (Lewis, 2010). In the present days, the involvement of the religious leaders in the political procedures is evident in different forms. In 1979, the revolution in Iran had led to the establishment of the Islamic republic. The council of guardians was consisted of a group of religious scholars who are led by the Grand Ayatollah. It focuses on ensuring that all activities of the parliament and president comply with the Islamic law and its principles. In Sudan and Saudi Arabia, Islamic law has been found to be a significant factor in governing major areas of social life (Lippman, 1982). The political procedures of these countries are extensively influenced by the values and beliefs of the religion(Martens, 2007). However, it has been found that in Malaysia, Morocco and Tunisia, a secular model has been followed which has a broad segregation of religion and politics (Ende and Steinbach, 2010). It is evident that the religious leaders are playing major roles in the political affairs of thee Islamic coun tries. Topic 4: Explain the concept of Islamic Democracy The concept of democracy has engrossed Arab political masterminds since the beginning of the current Arab renaissance around two centuries back. From that point of time, the idea of majority rules system has changed and created affected by an assortment of social and political developments (Ahmad, 2000). Tahtawi attempted to demonstrate that the majority rule idea he was clarifying to his readers was good with the law of Islam (Al-Rahim, 2006). He contrasted political pluralism with types of ideological and jurisprudential pluralism that existed in the Islamic experience (Arjomand, 2013). He argued that, Religious freedom is the freedom of belief, of opinion and of sect, provided it does not contradict the fundamentals of religion . . . The same would apply to the freedom of political practice and opinion by leading administrators, who endeavor to interpret and apply rules and provisions in accordance with the laws of their own countries. Kings and ministers are licensed in the realm of politics to pursue various routes that in the end serve one purpose: good administration and justice. Islamic democracy clearly indicates the political ideology which focuses on applying Islamic principles in context of the public policy considering a democratic framework. It has been found that in the Muslim dominated countries; there are three types of political system: secular democracy, religious democracies and theocracy (Delvoie and Ansari, 2001). The connection between Islam religion and democratization has immense importance in the contemporary political dynamic of the Muslim world. The conventional heartlands of Islamists are containing the most diverse ruling political system of the globe (Effendy, 2014). It includes convention and constitutional monarchy, secular and liberal democracy, dictatorship along with Islamic republics (Howeidy, 2010). This type of diversity demonstrates that Islam has adequate intellectual potential as well as ideological resources for justifying the wide range of governing systems. The dynamic force of Islam has been verified by the history and i t is evident that the principles had supported the political system of the society (Hilmy, 2007). In different period, the existing political system had been reformed by religion. However, it has been argued that the dynamism in Islam has some disadvantage and it has not been able to develop an appreciable as well as viable model for self-governance(Delvoie and Ansari, 2001). The frequent change in the political structure has indicated an unsettled nature. However, it must be considered that Sunnah and Quran has not prescribed any specific from of political structure and has not elaborated any constitutional theory. Various research scholars have admitted that Muslims have the liberty for devising the most appropriate form of government (Ghanim, 2009). In recent times, Islamic political system has acquired an edge in democracy. Many Muslim scholars have focused on the role of human polity in Islam. Allama Iqbal has significantly contributed in exploring the prospects associated with establishment of Islamic democracy. He had identified that Islam had no space for aristocracy. Additionally, indicated the significance of ijtihad and identified the importance of the institutionalization and democratization of Islam in an appropriate legislative assembly for bridging the hypothetical gap between the popular sovereignty and divine. He has been a strong supporter of individuality, freedom, unity, equality and fraternity which are the principal components of liberal democracy (Mandaville, 2001). According to Allama Iqbal, democracy was one of the most significant aspects of the Islamic political ideal (Boroumand and Boroumand, 2002). He believed in spiritual; democracy and stated that, Divine vicegerency is the representation of God on earth as revealed in the holy Quran and aims at the establishment of the kingdom of God on earth the democracy of unique individuals Syed Abu Ala Maududi is one of the most prominent scholar, politician and activist. He had rejected the division of state and religion and facilitated the establishment of the theo-democracy which is the principal base for the utopian Islamic state. Though he had criticized the western democracy, he had never rejected it(Wiredu, 2007). On the other hand, he had focused on discussing if democracy could be understood a restricted form of the very popular sovereignty, one is limited and directed by the law of God then there is must not be any incompatibility with Islam. He had coined the term theo-democracy and introduced the concept of Khilafah. Theo-democracy was defined as divine democratic government as it will provide restricted popular sovereignty to the Muslim under the dominance of God (Potrafke, 2010). Fethullah Gulen is one of the most prominent philosophers and scholars from Turkey who had explained and compared the approaches of democracy and Islam. He had focused on the fact that one needs to consider human life and humanity for analyzing democracy, philosophical concepts and religion (Rivetti, 2013). According to Fethullah Gulen, democracy is a system which undergoes a constant development as we as revision and it will vary according to different place and environment in which it will be practiced (Tibi, 2012). He had asserted that Islam did not propose a specific unchallengeable form of government. Additionally, it has not attempted for shaping the government structures. Islam had established the basic principles which contribute in orientation of the general characteristics of a government (Prasetyo, 2014). He had argued that democracy has evolved over the time and will continue to improve. In order to define Islam in context of democratic values and ideas, he stated that th e responsibilities given to the contemporary democratic system were those that Islam provided to the society as well as classified according importance such as relatively necessary or absolutely necessary (Potrafke, 2010). Lately across the world, various Islamic governments had focused on adoption of democratic and consultative practice though laying the foundations for different Islamic point off views of democracy (Mandaville, 2001). Topic 5: Nationalism and Islamic Revival in Egypt The contemporary Muslim Politics can be understood through analysis of various Islamic movements. There are two principle political trends in Egypt during the late 18th century. In 1881, the nationalist movement took place in Egypt and it was leaded by Ahmad Urabi, Saad Zaghoul and Mustapha Kamel (Abu-RabiÊÂ », 2010). Another important movement was Salafi Movement and it took place during the late 19th century in Egypt. The writing of Jamal al-Din al-Afgani had facilitated the movement. He emphasized on awakening of the consciousness of Muslim all over the globe (COMMINS, 1985). Muhammad Abdu was student of Jamal al-Din al-Afgani and was a reformer. He emphasized on viewing Islam in a meaningful and complete way of life instead of a doctrine which was based o the elucidation of some religious pieces and texts (Abu-RabiÊÂ », 2006). According to Muhammad Abdu, Islam had the potential for interpreting Sunna and Quran and it can be adapted by the contemporary settings (Mandaville , 2001). Thus, salafi doctrine will be formed. This is not a militant movement and various scholars had supported the concept of defensive jihad and they expressed their view through writing (Yambert and Telhami, 2012). In 1928, Muslim Brotherhood emerged in Egypt as a response to the westernization of the Egyptian society. It was perceived that the westernization was leading to the decline in the public morality (Lahoud and Johns, 2005). In 19th century, Muslim brotherhood became the most powerful organization in Egypt. It has been found that the ideologies of Muslim brotherhood were completely based on the simple foundations. However, it had represented a danger as it did not accept the concept of secularism of the ruling authorities. The major principles of Muslim brotherhood were defined in the periodical (Baker, 2003). It emphasized on the aspects such as the universal aspect of Islam, consideration of the basic values and principles of Islam, unity among Muslims (it focused on union of the Islamic countries across the world), institution of Caliphate and the Islamic government (DeLong-Bas, 2004). During 1933 to 137, the Muslim brotherhood was transformed into a political organization and it had established military discipline (Hefner, 2005). Therefore, clash with the government begin. In the World War II, the Muslim brotherhood took part in the assassination of the Egyptian officials. In the mid of 1948, the secret section of the Muslim brotherhood in Egypt emphasized on attacking the Jewish property (Baker, 2003). The power of the organization started to increase significantly and they had adequate potential for taking over the country (Abu-RabiÊÂ », 2006). The government of Egypt had outlawed the Muslim Brotherhood on the ground that they had adopted terrorist techniques. With the increasing number of members, Muslim Brotherhood ensured its position in the society and focused on participation into the political activities (Lahoud and Johns, 2005). In 1949, Al-Banna was assassinated by the government of Egypt (Hefner, 2005). Therefore, in 1952, some members of the Muslim Brotherhood had joined the Free Officers Revolution and they attempted the life of the President of Egypt. The government ceased the movement and imprisoned several members after closing its office (Yambert and Telhami, 2012). The post revolution policy in Egypt was entirely based on the secular nationalism and Arab unity. It had been found that Sadat had notably encouraged the Islamic groups but they were not allowed to participate directly in the political activities (Hefner, 2005). A new pathway of Islamic fundamentalism was introduced in Egypt (Lahoud and Johns, 2005). In the 1980 and 1990s the fundamentalists have devastated the major sources of revenue though attacking the tourists for attempting to make the nation free from Western influences (Mandaville, 2001). Presently the pressure of democracy has been increasing in Egypt. The contemporary practice in politics has been changing as the Islamic groups have learnt to uphold a healthy balance between the satisfactions of the orthodox Islamic components and permitting the intellectual and rational liberty. 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